Department of Environmental Conservation Office of Natural Resources - Region 5 July 1996 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation HIGH PEAKS UNIT MANAGEMENT PLAN FINAL DRAFT TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 NEED FOR A PLAN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 MANAGEMENT GOALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO THE HIGH PEAKS WILDERNESS COMPLEX AREA OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 UNIT DESCRIPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Ampersand Primitive Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Johns Brook Primitive Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 High Peaks Wilderness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Adirondack Canoe Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 BOUNDARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 PRIMARY ACCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 SECTION II BIOPHYSICAL RESOURCES GEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 TERRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 WETLANDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 AIR QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 OPEN SPACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 VEGETATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 WILDLIFE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 FISHERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 SECTION III MAN AND THE WILDERNESS ENVIRONMENT HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 HISTORIC SITES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 CULTURAL RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 ECONOMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 SECTION IV WILDERNESS USE AND USERS INTRINSIC USES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Indirect Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Scientific Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Educational Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Therapeutic and Personal Development . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Clean Air and Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 RECREATIONAL USE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Estimating Number of Users - Total Use . . . . . . . . . . 47 Distribution of Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Group Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Types of Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Mode of Interior Travel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Periods of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Length of Stay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Residence of Visitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Characteristics of Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Day Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Use of Trailess Peaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Canoe Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Horse Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Guide and Outfitter Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Winter Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Visitor Perceptions of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Wildlife Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 RECREATIONAL FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 NON-CONFORMING FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Ampersand Primitive Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 High Peaks Wilderness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Johns Brook Primitive Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 RECREATIONAL USE PROBLEMS RELATED TO FACILITIES . . . . . . . . 71 Trailheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Campsite and Leanto Deterioration. . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Leantos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Horse Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Human Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Wildlife Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 SECTION V ADJACENT LAND USES STATE LANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Wilderness Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Wild Forest Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Olympic Regional Development Authority (ORDA). . . . . . . 84 PRIVATE LANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Large Landowners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Subdivisions/Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 SECTION VI MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (before APSLMP). . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 TRANSITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 ADIRONDACK PARK STATE LAND MASTER PLAN. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 REMOVAL OF NON-CONFORMANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 HIGH PEAKS ADVISORY COMMITTEE (1974-1977) . . . . . . . . . . . 92 NEW RULES AND REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 INFORMATION AND EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 ASSISTANT FOREST RANGER PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 CAMPSITE DESIGNATION PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 PARKING FACILITY MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 WILD AND SCENIC RIVER MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 FISHERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 NEW YORK NATURAL HERITAGE PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 NATURAL AREAS REGISTRY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 REHABILITATION OF ALPINE SUMMITS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 SUMMIT STEWARDS PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 ADMINISTRATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 FUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 SECTION VII FUTURE MANAGEMENT DIRECTION HIGH PEAKS CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMITTEE (1990-92). . . . . . . .102 ISSUE IDENTIFICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 PLANNING CONSTRAINTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Governmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Ecological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Historical Legacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Sociological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 CARRYING CAPACITY CONCEPTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 STRATEGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 SECTION VIII MANAGEMENT PROPOSALS LAND ACQUISITION AND OWNERSHIP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 BIOPHYSICAL RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 Air Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 Water Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 FIRE MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 SEARCH AND RESCUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 HUMAN IMPACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Cultural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Special Events and Contests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 LAW ENFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 RECREATION MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 WILDERNESS EDUCATION AND INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . .139 FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Trailheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Trails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Trailless Peaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Campsites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 Leantos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 Sanitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 Campfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 Sound Issues and Audio Devices. . . . . . . . . . . .156 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Dams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 VISITOR USE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 Party Size Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 Length of Stay Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 Wilderness Access for Persons with Disabilities . . .162 Wilderness Permits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164 Special Use Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 AIRCRAFT USE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 HIGHWAY PERIMETER DE-ICING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 SCIENTIFIC STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 PARTNERSHIPS AND VOLUNTEERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171 SECTION IX SPECIAL AREA PLANS AMPERSAND PRIMITIVE AREA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176 CASCADE LAKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177 COLD RIVER (Wild River Management). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 COLD RIVER HORSE TRAIL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179 INDIAN FALLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 AUSABLE CLUB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182 MOOSE POND - NEWCOMB LAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 UPPER WORKS - TAHAWUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 LONG LAKE - EAST SHORE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 THE GARDEN - KEENE VALLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 JOHNS BROOK PRIMITIVE AREA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188 MARCY DAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 LAKE COLDEN - FLOWED LANDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 LAKE COLDEN INTERIOR OUTPOST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 DUCK HOLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 AVERYVILLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 WALLFACE MOUNTAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 SOUTH MEADOWS AND SOUTH MEADOWS ROAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 SPECIAL USE AREA MAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 SECTION X SCHEDULE FOR IMPLEMENTATION AND BUDGETING. . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 SECTION XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 PLAN REVIEW AND EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322 PREFACE State lands are classified according to "their characteristics and capability to withstand use". Those lands administered by the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) are classified into five categories: WILDERNESS, PRIMITIVE, CANOE AREA, WILD FOREST, and INTENSIVE USE. Each classification carries an explicit set of guidelines which will, when implemented, provide the State lands of the Park with a unique blend of resource protection and public use. There are over one million acres of Adirondack forest preserve managed as wilderness. These lands were legally designated as wilderness by the Adirondack Park State Land Master Plan (APSLMP) in 1972. The APSLMP was legislated as part of the Adirondack Park Agency Act and was designed to provide a unified and comprehensive mandate on how the State lands of the Adirondack Park should be managed and used. To accomplish this objective, Section 816 of the Act directs the Department of Environmental Conservation to develop, in consultation with the Agency, individual unit management plans (UMPS) for each unit of land under its jurisdiction classified in the master plan. In accordance with this statutory mandate, all plans will conform to the guidelines and criteria set forth in the master plan and cannot amend the master plan itself. The courts have ruled that the APSLMP has the force of law. These UMP's translate the objectives of the APSLMP and related legislation, legal codes, rules, regulations, policies, area specific resource and visitor use information into a single useful document. Ordinarily, these plans are based on a five year time frame so that revisions can be made reflecting changes in resource and/or sociological conditions. Plans may also be amended or revised sooner if warranted. The subject of this management plan is a designated wilderness area. The APSLMP, defines a WILDERNESS area, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man - where man himself is a visitor who does not remain. A wilderness is further defined to mean an area of state land or water having a primeval character, without significant improvements or permanent human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve, enhance and restore where necessary, its natural conditions, and which (1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least ten thousand acres of land and water or is of sufficient size and character as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological or other features of scientific, educational, scenic or historical value. Members of a Temporary Study Commission on the Future of the Adirondack Park (TSC) originally wrote this functional definition in 1970 to closely parallel the Congressional definition of wilderness found in the Federal Wilderness Act of 1964. The commission felt this definition appropriate for the Adirondack forest preserve with the exception of a few minor word changes. The definition substitutes "forest preserve" for Federal land and increased the Federal minimum size requirement for wilderness designation from five thousand acres to ten thousand acres to be applicable for state lands (TSC Technical Report l Volume B). The wilderness resource is a composite of many basic biophysical and sociological resources, but what make Wilderness unique is the setting in which they occur. The APSLMP described this setting as:  A place not controlled by humans, where the land's primeval character and influence are retained and natural processes are allowed to operate freely.  A place not occupied or modified by humans, where humans are visitors and the imprint of their work is substantially unnoticeable.  A place with outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation. These settings are truly special and outstanding - not only to New York State but to the entire eastern United States as well. It is because of this uniqueness that wilderness lands were granted the highest priority in public land management by the APSLMP. One of the biggest challenges in wilderness management is how to keep the "wildness" in wilderness and yet, still make it available for public use and enjoyment under today's heavy recreational pressures. The demands on New York's wilderness resources will intensify over time as resources like clean air and water become more precious. There will be requests for use of wilderness that cannot even be envisioned now, but they will certainly come. When natural resource managers decide what to approve and what to deny, their foremost goal must be the protection of the wilderness resource itself. The wilderness resource in all its many facets is fragile and can be lost through the effects of seemingly inconsequential decisions. NEED FOR A PLAN One of the objectives in designating wilderness areas within the Adirondack Park was to ensure that an increasing population does not occupy and modify all natural areas within New York State. Wilderness lands, by law, were to be protected and preserved indefinitely in their wild state. Without a UMP, wilderness area management can easily become a series of uncoordinated reactions to immediate problems. When this happens, unplanned management actions often cause a shift in focus that is inconsistent and often in conflict with wilderness preservations goals and objectives. A prime objective of wilderness planning is to use environmental and social science to replace nostalgia and politics. Comprehensive planning allows for the exchange of ideas and information before actions, that can have long-term effects, are taken. A written plan stabilizes management despite changes in personnel or the influences of multiple administrative units where several managers and/or disciplines have different perceptions on how wilderness should be managed. In view of tight budgets and competition for monetary resources, plans that clearly identify management objectives and actions have demonstrated greater potential for securing needed funding. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, involving and introducing the public to the planning process gives interested parties the opportunity to learn about, evaluate, provide advice, and become directly involved in unit planing. Public participation gives a sense of pride and ownership in the care and custody of State lands; it allows the public to experience the problems that DEC constantly struggles to resolve. This involvement is crucial to a plan's acceptance and implementation. MANAGEMENT GOALS The overall intent of this management plan is to emphasize the preservation, enhancement, and restoration of natural environmental conditions in the High Peaks Wilderness Complex (HPWC), in perpetuity for the people of the State of New York as an area of wilderness that is not adversely affected by human activities. This reflects a biocentric philosophy of management as found in the introduction to the master plan which states "If there is a unifying theme to the classification system, it is that the protection and preservation of the natural resources of the state lands within the Park must be paramount. Human use and enjoyment of those lands should be permitted and encouraged, so long as the resources in their physical and biological context and their social or psychological aspects are not degraded" (APSLMP 1987). This theme is drawn not only from the APSLMP, but from over a century old legislative history of public attitudes towards New York state's publicly owned Adirondack forest preserve. The High Peaks region has helped define the Adirondack Wilderness. For more than 150 years, it has been an immense attraction for those people with a sense of adventure and appreciation for wild places. Although it may fall short of providing the ultimate in solitude, naturalness, and self-reliance as envisioned by the APSLMP, it has served an important role in introducing and educating people to the concept of wilderness. The APSLMP requires DEC to establish an acceptable level or use that is in proper balance with its wilderness protection mandates. Both DEC managers and the public are challenged to keep the HPWC "affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable." Unfortunately portions of the wilderness, at least in the eastern High Peaks, currently sustain high levels of resource degradation, diminished opportunities for solitude, with the consequence that APSLMP wilderness standards are not being met. The uniqueness and resulting popularity of the High Peaks embrace "people" as part of the solution as well as part of the problem. A concerted effort by all parties is needed to implement the following management goals:  To provide for the long-term protection and preservation of the area's wilderness character under the principle of non-degradation "which calls for the maintenance of existing environmental conditions if they equal or exceed minimum standards, and for the restoration of conditions which are below minimum levels." (Hendee, 1990) The area's natural condition, opportunities for solitude, opportunities for primitive and unconfined types of recreation, and any ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value present will be managed so that they will remain unimpaired.  To manage human use in a manner that encourages an appreciation and advocacy of wild areas.  To manage the wilderness area for the use and enjoyment of visitors in a manner that will leave the area unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness. The wilderness resource will be dominant in all management decisions where a choice must be made between preservation of wilderness character and visitor use.  To manage the area using the minimum tool, equipment, action, or structure necessary to successfully, safely, and economically accomplish the objective. The chosen tool, equipment, action or structure shall be the one that least degrades wilderness values temporarily or permanently. Management will seek to preserve spontaneity of use and as much freedom from regulation as possible.  To manage and/or remove non-conforming use so as to prevent unnecessary or undue degradation of wilderness character. Non-conforming uses are the exception rather than the rule; therefore emphasis is placed on maintaining wilderness character. The goals presented above are broad based that not only serve present needs, but will also aid in future planning. This document is intended to be the first phase of a transition plan to bring this area into compliance with the APSLMP. It initially covers a period of five years. Some issues will require further study and evaluation, based on better understanding of the resource and its users. These studies, in part, will include trailhead and trail realignments, further adjustments in camping and leanto locations, a reduction in manmade facilities, and visitor sensitivity to crowding. Further work will be needed to carry out the goal of reducing human induced pressures in certain areas and restoring the wilderness setting. In some instances, merely responding to the guidelines of the APSLMP will not provide all the necessary steps. The Unit Management Plan that follows recommends several ways management of the HPWC can be improved. The sum of its parts does not complete the job; however, initial restrictions and policy guidelines are designed to enhance the wilderness experience of the visitor and to help protect resources. Much more will be required in future years. SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO THE HIGH PEAKS WILDERNESS COMPLEX AREA OVERVIEW The High Peaks Wilderness Complex (HPWC) is comprised of three distinct, but interrelated units: (1) the Ampersand Primitive Area, (2) the High Peaks Wilderness, and (3) the Johns Brook Primitive Corridor. Although not identified as a separate unit by the APSLMP, the Adirondack Canoe Route coincides with the western boundary of the complex and therefore must be considered. The High Peaks Wilderness is the best known wilderness of the Adirondacks; it is the state's largest wilderness and receives the most visitation. While its topography varies considerably, the area is predominantly high mountain country, containing many of New York's highest peaks. The primary attraction is Mount Marcy, the state's highest peak at an elevation of 5,344 feet. The climbing of Mount Marcy is an "absolute must" for many hikers. It is truly New York's Mecca for those interested in mountain climbing. The pilgrimage to the summit is not an easy one, requiring a minimum round trip hike of fifteen miles. In addition, a range trail from Keene Valley to the summit of Mt. Haystack is considered one of the most rugged and the most scenic in New York State. The trail crosses seven mountaintops with elevations above 4,000 feet. The eastern portion of the wilderness is heavily used by recreationists. Western segments of the wilderness are more remote, receive substantially less use, and offers some of the best opportunities for solitude in the northeast. The Ampersand Primitive Area and the Johns Brook Primitive Corridor are relatively small sections of state land affording access to private lands enclosed by the High Peaks Wilderness. UNIT DESCRIPTIONS Ampersand Primitive Area The Ampersand Primitive Area is a narrow strip of Forest Preserve land located between the Ampersand Road and Ampersand Brook in the Town of Harrietstown, Franklin County. The primitive area extends from the privately owned Ampersand Lake property westward to Stony Creek, and thence northward to Stony Creek Ponds. It is enclosed by the High Peaks Wilderness on three sides and occupies 700 acres. The Ampersand Road provides legal access to the aforementioned private property which prevented this area from being included in the High Peaks Wilderness. Johns Brook Primitive Corridor This is a long narrow piece of land in the Town of Keene, Essex County, consisting of a right-of-way 1.3 miles long across state lands leading to 13 private parcels enclosed by the High Peaks Wilderness on three sides. The right-of-way serves as the boundary south of Johns Brook and the Phelps Trail, also known as the Johns Brook or Northside Trail, across the brook, is the primitive area's northern boundary. High Peaks Wilderness Covering 226,435 acres (354 sq. miles), the High Peaks Wilderness is located in three counties and six towns: the Town of Harrietstown in Franklin County, the Towns of North Elba, North Hudson, Keene, and Newcomb in Essex County, and the Town of Long Lake in Hamilton County. It is the largest legally designated wilderness in New York State. The unit is bounded on the north by the Old Haybridge Road, which runs from Cold Brook to Averyville, Adirondak Loj at Heart Lake, the Mt. Van Hoevenberg Winter Recreation Complex, and NYS Route 73 at Cascade Lakes. Private lands west of Route 73 form the eastern boundary. The southern boundary follows the boundaries of the Ausable Club, Finch Pruyn and Co., NL Industries Inc., and Huntington Wildlife Forest. The wilderness is further bounded by Long Lake and the Raquette River. Adirondack Canoe Route Although not a distinct land classification, the Adirondack Canoe Route is an integral part of the HPWC. The Canoe Route parallels the western boundary of the unit for 23 miles along the eastern shores of Long Lake and the Raquette River. This section is a major link in the 90-mile canoe route from Old Forge to Saranac Lake. BOUNDARY The HPWC boundary encloses 226,435 acres. It follows public roads, water courses, and individual property lines. Property lines, where surveyed, are blazed, painted yellow, and marked with Forest Preserve signs. Seventeen parcels of private land are enclosed by the wilderness boundary. Collectively, these parcels total 3,315 acres. The DEC recognizes all historically exercised rights of access to these lands. Also enclosed within the HPWC boundary there are 2,500 acres of state-owned, non-Forest Preserve lands on the easterly slopes of Santanoni Mountain and the southerly slopes of Henderson Mountain. These lands were received as a "gift" from Finch Pruyn in 1955, which by deed at the request of the donor, were not accorded Forest Preserve status. They were to be retained for "forestry and/or silvicultural purposes." (Van Valkenburg, 1991) Principal adjoining landowners include: the Adirondack Mountain Club (640 acres), the Adirondack Mountain Reserve (7,500 acres), Finch Pruyn (46,000 acres), NL Industries (11,000 acres), and the Huntington Wildlife Forest, a component of the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, (15,000 acres). PRIMARY ACCESS Access to the periphery of the HPWC is easily gained via Interstate 87, NYS Routes 3, 8, 30, and 73, and by numerous town and county roads. The interior is served by 303 miles of trails. The Long Lake-Raquette River corridor provides important water access to the western boundary. The entire unit lies within one day's drive of over 70 million people in the northeast states and Canada. Nearby population centers include Albany, New York (140 miles), New York City (300 miles), and Montreal, Quebec (120 miles). SECTION II BIOPHYSICAL RESOURCES GEOLOGY The High Peaks region appears as part of a mountainous dome covering an area approximately 60 miles in diameter. The region, referred to as the "Central Highlands", is part of the Grenville Province, a large area of bedrock extending into Canada. The High Peaks are a remnant of a mountain region existing 1000-1300 million years ago. Once flat, the Adirondacks were covered by sedimentary rocks; the same sedimentary rocks that surround the region today. During more recent geologic time, the region was uplifted, creating a central dome with its sedimentary covering removed by erosion. The dome is characterized by three prominent geologic features: (1) long straight valleys running north-northeast, (2) gently curved ridges and valleys, and (3) radial drainage patterns flowing outward from the dome. Elevations rapidly fall north and east in the central highlands, and decline more gradually south and west. (Isachsen, 1991). Much of the bedrock is metanorthosite, a metamorphic rock that has been subject to extremely high temperatures and pressures. Metanorthosite is very hard, extremely dense, and resists weathering and erosion. It was left towering over the countryside as sedimentary rocks wore away. Rock color ranges from white to bluish gray. Plagioclase feldspar is its major component. The largest area of such rock is the Marcy massif which underlies most of the High Peaks. The massif contains numerous "dikes" or intrusions of igneous rock that penetrate the anorthosite. Chemically less stable and less resistant to erosion than the base rock, many of these dikes eroded to form stream channels. Where the dike rock in stream beds is fractured and broken, waterfalls and stream rapids occur. Examples include Rainbow, Indian, Roaring Brook, Rock, and Bushnell Falls. High Peaks rocks are also altered by folding and faulting of the crust which serves to relieve internal pressures. Valleys form along and within the fault zones. These valleys tend to be long and straight, and generally follow a north-northeast direction; they divide the High Peaks into its characteristic mountain ranges. Even resistant rocks eventually succumb to the pull of gravity and slabs are torn from craggy peaks, leaving cliffs with piles of broken rock at their bases. (Kendall, 1987). Referred to as "mass wasting," this down slope movement of weathered, disintegrated rock, is evident along all cliffs and steep slopes. Rock falls and slides are encountered on the Cascades, the Gothics. Mount Colden, Santanoni, Avalanche Lake, Nye and Wright Peak. Despite the cumulative effects of running water, weathering, mass wasting, and other agents of change, glacial erosion and deposition have had dramatic effects on High Peaks landscapes. During the Pleistocene Epoch 1.6 million years ago, huge ice sheets advanced and retreated several times across the Adirondacks. The last major ice sheet, the Wisconsian, reached its maximum advance across the High Peaks over 21,000 years ago. It was thick enough to bury the summit of mile high Mt. Marcy. 10,000 years later in retreat, this glacier accomplished spectacular erosion; plucked rock fragments in its path, scoured mountaintops, scraped away soil and loose sediments, wore away bedrock, and gouged river valleys into deep troughs. Melting ice sheets released huge volumes of melt water. As the main continental glacier retreated, smaller mountain glaciers remained in the High Peaks. These smaller glaciers concentrated erosion within stream valleys and sharpened the landscape. Glacial retreat accentuated steep valley walls into "U" shaped valleys and naturally tended to form cliffs on mountaintops and on the sides of steep slopes. This is responsible for the ramp-and-cliff pattern on Algonquin and Big Slide. Ice movement and running melt water often followed, and straightened fault zones. Fault zones molded by glaciation and resultant flowing water include the Cascades, the Ausable Lakes, and Indian Pass. Where valley glaciers originated on high mountainsides, bowl-shaped cirques formed at the point of origin. Well-defined cirques on the valley heads of Tabletop, Couchsachraga, Donaldson, Marcy, Phelps, and Algonquin attest to this phenomenon. Retreating glaciers deposited accumulations of glacial till, a mixture of clay, silt, sand, and stone, in their wake which dammed stream channels to form numerous lakes, kettle ponds, and wetlands. Kettle ponds were created by huge melting blocks of ice, covered or partially covered by glacial drift (debris). Heart Lake on the adjoining Adirondack Loj property is a typical example of a remnant kettle pond. Moraine lakes occurred when glacial debris blocked a river valley forming a natural dam, and altered drainage. The wetland beyond South Meadows was once a moraine lake, that over time, filled with vegetation and sediments. Eskers, deposits of glacial drift (usually sand and gravels) formed by stream deposition atop, within, or beneath a glacier, are portrayed as narrow winding ridges prominent south of Corey's and parallel the Raquette River. SOILS All soils are formed by the chemical and physical breakdown of bedrock. However, in the HPWC, soil composition is vastly different from the bedrock beneath. They are mostly derived from glacial deposits that have been moved and deposited as glaciers advanced and retreated. Soil characteristics are quite variable and fluctuate widely from location to location. They are basically grouped into four broad soil types; glacial tills, glacial outwash, organically derived, and hardpan. No one general characteristic describes them all.  Glacial tills are a mixture of clay, silt, sand, and stone. Their occurrence in the HPWC is widespread. They dominate the lower and middle slopes but thin out and disappear on the high slopes where the spruce/fir forest gives way to the subalpine zone of balsam fir. The deeper and richer soils occur around the base of the mountains, especially on terraces and those slightly elevated locations that escaped the fluvial phase in late glacial retreat, meaning places a hundred feet or so higher than the nearby river system. In effect, hardwoods today dominate these richer soils and mixed conifer/hardwoods the lower sites with partially water-washed soils.  Glacial outwash soils are stratified soils deposited as eskers and moraines in areas subject to periods of flash-flooding during the glacial retreat and from which the nutrient-bearing silts and clays have been washed away. Because the soils are so stony and thus draughty, the fast growing and deep rooted pines out-compete the other more demanding tree species.  Organically derived soils are rich in vegetative matter in various states of decay, and occur in two physiographic situations: a) on the highest mountain sides, typically above 4,000 feet elevation where the glacial tills washed down slope in early post-glacial time and left exposed bedrock, and b) in the low wetlands where impeded drainage created saturated soils on top of glacial outwash or bedrock and where upland forest plants could not survive. In both situations sphagnum moss dominates the early stages of plant succession and in the low wetlands may convert ponds into peat bogs and meandering streams into mucky swamps. On the sloping land surfaces near the high summits, the accumulated layers of black humus created by sphagnum and other mosses on top of the bedrock are invaded by various herbaceous plants and in time are replaced by mountain paper birch, the sole pioneering tree species, and by balsam fir, the sole climax species in this drastic timberline ecosystem. The subalpine and alpine organic soils are the most fragile and easily damaged types in the high peaks complex.  Many HPWC sites have a cement like, very dense hardpan texture, lying one to two feet below ground surface. This causes shallow rooting of vegetation; especially tree species, and limits their ability to absorb soil nutrients and water. This limits height and diameter growth and makes them susceptible to wind-throw. During period of heavy and prolonged rains, these soils are easily saturated and water may sit upon the surface reflecting poor internal drainage. (Ketchledge, 1994). TERRAIN The topography ranges from small areas of low-lying wetlands along the Raquette River and the headwaters of the Saranac River to the highest point in New York State atop Mount Marcy. Although there is considerable variation in terrain, the HPWC is predominantly high mountain country. The highest mountains are mainly grouped in the eastern High Peaks; most peaks surpass elevations of 3,000 feet. Mount Marcy is the highest point in the unit and is also New York State's highest peak at an elevation of 5,344 feet, followed by Algonquin Peak at 5,114 feet. The unit has over 34 peaks with elevations above 4,000 feet. In contrast, the western High Peaks are characterized by a more gentle topography of rolling hills, and nearly level, wide river drainages. However, it does have a few high points; Santanoni Peak (4,607 ft.), Seward Mountain (4,361 ft.), and Sawtooth Mountain (3,877 ft.). Maximum relief (change in elevation) across the unit is 4,244 feet from atop Mount Marcy (5,344 ft.) down to the lower slopes of Owl's Head and Rooster Comb (1,100 ft.). WATER The HPWC includes headwater portions of the Upper Hudson, Champlain and Raquette watersheds. Approximately 220 miles of primarily first and second order, cold water streams are found within the unit. Many of these streams include sections of extremely high gradient (200+ feet/mile) and some have impassable fish barriers, such as Hanging Spear Falls on the Opalescent River. The Raquette River watershed portion of the HPWC includes the Cold River and Ampersand Brook. The Cold River sub-basin is also the largest stream system entirely within the HPWC. Three headwater streams which feed the Upper Hudson drainage in the HPWC are the Opalescent River, Calamity Brook and Indian Pass Brook. The Champlain watershed includes the Cold Brook system (tributary to the Saranac River); the Chubb River, South Meadow Brook, Marcy Brook and another Indian Pass Brook (tributary to the West Branch Ausable River); and John's Brook (tributary to the East Branch Ausable River). The HPWC includes 117 lakes and ponds greater than one-half acre in size which have been enumerated by the New York State Biological Survey Unit of the DEC. The total surface area of these waters exceeds 1700 acres. Numerous, smaller water bodies are found in the unit, but most of these are shallow, beaver ponds which are ephemeral in nature. Newcomb Lake, at 506 acres, is the largest water body in the HPWC, although a portion of this water extends into the Vanderwhacker Mountain Wild Forest. Other notable ponded waters include: 218-acre Round Pond, 185-acre Moose Pond (P# 221), 61-acre Duck Hole, 46-acre Big Pine Pond, 41-acre Lake Colden, 27-acre Rock Pond (P# 196), 28-acre Moose Pond (P# 233), 22-acre Lower Cascade Lake, 26-acre Upper Cascade Lake, and 10-acre Avalanche Lake. Appendix 9 lists the 117 ponded waters in the HPWC and provides some geographical and morphometric data and the fisheries management classification for each water. Appendix 10 gives additional data pertaining to biological and/or chemical survey data collected on 46 waters in the HPWC. WETLANDS The wetlands of the HPWC possess great ecological, aesthetic, recreational, and educational value. In their capacity to receive, store, and slowly release rainwater and meltwater, wetlands protect water resources by stabilizing water flow and minimizing erosion and sedimentation. Many natural and man-made pollutants are removed from water entering wetland areas. Also, because they constitute one of the most productive habitats for fish and wildlife, wetlands afford abundant opportunities for fishing, hunting, trapping, and wildlife observation and photography. The wetlands of the unit serve as important habitats for a number of wildlife species listed as threatened or species of special concern which may be present in the unit, including the osprey, northern harrier, red-shouldered hawk, and spruce grouse (threatened), and the least bittern, Cooper's hawk, Jefferson salamander, and spotted salamander (species of special concern). For the visitor, expanses of open space wetlands provide a visual contrast to heavily forested wilderness settings. One hundred and eighty-five major wetlands in the unit have been identified. Wetlands covering less than 4.5 acres (2.5 hectares) were not identified unless they possessed significant value as fish or wildlife habitat. One hundred thirty-five of these wetlands are located west of the Sawteeth Range and occupy the lowlands of the Raquette and Cold River drainages. While most of the unit's wetlands occur in low-lying areas, they can also be found on mountain summits and anywhere soil is seasonally or perennially saturated with water. Summit wetlands are characterized by cool, moist, shallow soil environments and resemble the tundra of northern latitudes. Some of New York's rarest flora are encountered in these elevated wetland communities. The largest wetlands in the unit are found along Calkins Creek, Chubb River, Cold River, Indian Pass Brook, Moose Creek, Pine Brook and Raquette River drainages. These wetlands are mostly coniferous, characterized by dense stands of red spruce, black spruce and balsam fir. Some serve as important deer wintering areas. The largest wetland community in the HPWC lies east of South Meadows and covers 125 acres. It is largely an alder-sedge plant association. CLIMATE The region's climate, in general terms, is best described as cool and moist. Climatic conditions vary considerably throughout the unit and are influenced by such factors as slope aspect, elevation, distance and direction from large bodies of water, seasonal temperatures, precipitation, prevailing winds, and the location of natural barriers. Summers tend to be warm with cool nights. Maximum day-time temperatures seldom exceed 90 degrees. Frost can occur any month of the year and occasional freezing temperatures are recorded in July and August. Winters are long and extremely cold. Temperatures of -40 degrees are common, often accompanied by high winds. Arctic-like conditions may be encountered at high elevations. Daily temperature variations of 20-30 degrees are common between peripheral entry points and interior locations. Annual precipitation, in rainfall, is between 40 and 60 inches per year; snowfall ranges from 100-150 inches per year. Due to the availability of direct sunlight, southern slopes are drier than northern slopes. The latter tend to retain more moisture. Prevailing winds are generally westerly, but may be modified by topography. Eastern slopes, leeward of prevailing winds, tend to be drier than western slopes. Extensive damaging winds (hurricane force) winds are rare, but do occur when coastal storms move inland. The resulting influence of climate on local flora and fauna, in particular, is profound. AIR QUALITY The effects of various activities on HPWC air quality have not been sufficiently measured nor determined. Air quality and visibility in the unit appears to be good to excellent, rated Class II (moderately well controlled) by federal and state standards. However, the summits are often obscured by haze caused by air pollutants when a large number of small diameter particles exist in the air. Visibility of the mountains is reduced considerably on high sulphate days (O'Neil 1990). Air quality may be more affected by particulate matter blown in from outside sources rather than from activities within the unit. The relative assimilation of outside pollutants, e.g. acid rain, by HPWC environments is under investigation by a myriad of researchers. OPEN SPACE The natural landscape of the HPWC is an important wilderness element. The HPWC affords an endless variety of open space and scenic views; each dramatic and diverse. HPWC scenery is unparalleled in New York State. Author Lincoln Barnett summed it up best in his 1974 classic book The Ancient Adirondacks. "...there are deep, silent forests, plunging ravines and gorges, tumbling waterfalls, still lakes, soaring mountains, and bird haunted wetlands." One does not necessarily need to hike great distances to enjoy the beauty of this open space. From afar, the HPWC can best be viewed from NYS Route 73, especially near the Cascade Lakes, and its intersection with the Adirondak Loj Road. The latter view, looking into and through Indian Pass, is described as one of the best scenic viewpoints in the Adirondacks. (Goodwin, 1992). An excellent panoramic view of the High Peaks can be seen from a 60 foot fire tower atop Goodnow Mountain, south of Route 28 in the Town of Newcomb. Owned and operated as an interpretive site by the NYS College of Environmental Science and Forestry (ESF), it is possible to view the Sewards, Santanoni, Indian Pass, and Mounts Algonquin, Colden, and Marcy from a single point. (Masters 1994). Other vantage points include: NYS Route 28N, between Newcomb and Long Lake; NYS Routes 3 & 30, looking northeast from Tupper Lake; and Whiteface Mountain via Veterans Memorial Highway. Favored interior viewpoints are many. A partial list would include the summits of Marcy, Haystack, Algonquin, Ampersand, Skylight, Sawteeth, Gothics, Wright, Phelps, and Slide Mountains; Avalanche and Ausable Lakes; Bushnell, Hanging Spear, Indian, Raquette, Rocky, and Wanika Falls; Panther Gorge, Duck Hole and Opalescent Flume. VEGETATION The HPWC occupies a transition zone between the boreal forests to the north and the mixed forests of the south. Its forests represent a mosaic of plant communities that correspond to local variations in soil, temperature, moisture and elevation. Past events such as fire, wind, land clearing, and logging have exerted a strong influence on present day conditions. Not much is known about the original forests of the HPWC, but they are believed to have been a mixture of mature, old growth northern hardwoods, spruce-fir, and eastern white pine forest types. These forests were characterized by dense shade, many cavity trees, significant ground debris, and few natural openings. Insect outbreaks, disease, wind and wildfire were vital parts of the natural environment and the major agents of change. Few HPWC forests have survived to make the transition from the pioneer stage to the theoretical climax forest stage. Extensive softwood cutting prior to Forest Preserve acquisition, severe wildfires in 1903 and 1908, and the "great blowdown of 1950" have altered the composition of this forest dramatically. In most cases, the softwood component has been eliminated or significantly reduced and replaced by northern hardwoods. It is estimated that less than five percent of the HPWC remains in its original forest condition (Ketchledge, 1967). Historically and ecologically, these factors have contributed to a great diversity of forest cover types which support a vast variety of animal and plant species. In general, HPWC vegetation can be categorized into six land zones based by elevation and topographical position on the landscape. Each land zone has plant communities, associations of plant species that scientists recognize as belonging together under certain circumstances and site requirements. The six land zones are: Lowland Conifers Zone (to 1,500 feet): Red spruce - balsam fir associations are especially common to the low lying areas of the western High Peaks where high soil moisture and poor drainage dominate soil conditions. Tree species common to this association include black and red spruce, balsam fir, red maple and white and yellow birch. Infrequent associates are northern white cedar, alder and tamarack. The forest tends to be quite dense and little sunlight reaches the forest floor. Extreme shade and acidic soils preclude many ground plants. The forest floor is relatively open. Mixed Conifers and Hardwoods Zone (to 2,500 feet): A mixed forest of conifers and hardwoods is encountered as the elevation rises above the spruce swamps and drainage improves. Red spruce and balsam fir noticeably fade. Increased elevation and improved drainage favor the growth of maples, birches, eastern hemlock and eastern white pine. The dominant ground cover is viburnum, commonly called hobble-bush. Various ferns, grasses and wild flowers are evident. Northern Hardwoods Zone (to 2,500 feet): Northern hardwoods are the most widespread forest association in the HPWC. It is found on the better drained, more fertile uplands. Deep glacial soils with elevation up to 2,500 feet, favor a forest association of sugar maple, American beech and yellow birch. Black cherry and white ash are minor associates. Upper Spruce-Fir Zone (2500 feet to 3100 feet): Above 2,500 feet red spruce and balsam fir forests reappear reminiscent of northern boreal forests. Red spruce and balsam fir prevail in nearly pure stands. They reflect cooler temperatures and increased moisture as elevations rise. Ground cover is almost non-existent due to lack of sunlight on the forest floor. Sub-alpine Zone (3100 feet to 4000 feet): In this zone red spruce generally fades giving way to balsam fir. Approaching 4,000 feet the balsam fir is often stunted and misshapen, barely able to survive the onslaught of cold, drying winds and infertile soils. Here the trees grow almost prostrate as the "krumholz" (meaning crooked wood) forest is encountered. Slightly above the krumholz, timberline is soon reached. Timberline is the point of elevation beyond which climatic conditions become so harsh that tree life cannot survive. Alpine Zone (4000 feet and above): In the HPWC the most limiting of all environments are encountered above 4,000 feet. This zone resembles the arctic tundra of the far north. Ground cover is scant and open areas with bare rock are frequent. The common theme among all vegetation in this zone is to stay small and grow low to the ground in order to survive (Marchand, 1987). Alpine zone communities include dwarf willows and birches in sheltered depressions, heaths, mosses and lichens, alpine flowers, grasses, sedges, and rushes. Of the Adirondack Park's six million acres, only 85 acres are home to alpine species; 81 of these acres are located in the High Peaks (DiNunzio, 1972). This one zone contains some of New York State's rarest and most endangered plant species (Ketchledge, 1994). In addition to naturally occurring forests, plantations were established in the wake of early forest fires. Plantations can be found at South Meadows, NYS Route 3 and the Ampersand Road, and adjacent to the Cold River. Species planted included eastern white pine, red pine, Scotch pine, Norway spruce and white spruce. These forest are gradually losing their man-made character and giving way to natural succession. Exemplary Vegetative Communities The HPWC has four exemplary vegetative communities that serve as outstanding examples of the biological diversity of the Adirondack Park (Adirondack Council, 1988): Ampersand Mountain Old Growth Forest COVER TYPE: Northern hardwoods; AREA: 1,400 acres TOWN: Harrietstown; COUNTY: Franklin; NHPC: Hemlock-Northern Hardwood Forest (National Heritage Plant Community) Located on the northern slopes of Ampersand Mountain, south of Route 3, west of Saranac Lake, this old-growth forest is the largest known sugar maple-yellow birch-hemlock forest in the Adirondack Park. Large diameter trees reflect a forest community relatively undisturbed by man and wildfire. Marcy Swamp COVER TYPE: Coniferous swamps, bogs and fens AREA: 220 acres; TOWN: N. Hudson; COUNTY: Essex NHPC: Northern White Cedar Swamp. Bisected by the Elk Lake-Marcy Trail, this community is characterized by old-growth northern white cedar more than two feet in diameter and over 40 feet tall, intermixed with red spruce and balsam fir. The cover type extends on to private land. Phelps Brook Old-Growth Forest COVER TYPE: Upper spruce slope; AREA: 180 acres TOWN: North Elba; COUNTY: Essex NHPC: Mountain spruce-fir forest. One of the few stands of spruce-fir timber in the HPWC that escaped early logging and the forest fires of 1903 and 1909, it is an old-growth forest of red spruce and balsam fir situated on an unnamed mountain (elevation 3,720 ft.), south of Phelps Brook above Marcy Dam. High Peaks Tundra COVER TYPE: Alpine tundra; AREA: 40 acres TOWNS: Keene, Newcomb and North Elba; COUNTY: Essex NHPC: Alpine Meadow The alpine tundra contains some of New York's rarest plants. They are found in tundra-like habitats resembling those of the Arctic. This condition is encountered on the State's highest peaks and the total area covered by alpine vegetation approximates 40 acres on 19 peaks, 18 of which are in the High Peaks Wilderness. The alpine environments are characterized by climates having cool, moist and windy conditions throughout most of the year. Summit temperatures are usually 10-20øF cooler than the lowlands and precipitation is greater. Winds exceeding 40 mph are common. These factors greatly curtail the growing season, reducing it to two months or less. This severity of climate often dictates the type and quantity of vegetation present on any one summit. About 50 percent of New York's alpine vegetation occurs on Marcy and Algonquin. Significant amounts also exist on Haystack, Skylight, Iroquois, Boundary, Basin, Gothics, Colden and Wright. Even though the Cascade and Rocky Peak Ridge are at high elevations (4,000+ feet), no alpine vegetation has been documented on these peaks due to alterations by fire. Mosses and lichens are the simplest plants found on these summits, but the key to alpine tundra ecology is sphagnum moss. The sphagnum holds water that otherwise would be lost to cold, drying winds. It provides a seed bed for other plants and forms a matrix to which plant roots attach. Major plant species taking hold in the sphagnum include cottongrass, Lapland rosebay, leatherleaf, bog laurel, sheep laurel, Labrador tea, small cranberry and alpine bilberry. The sphagnum complex is very fragile and is easily damaged by visitor trampling. Once the sphagnum matrix is destroyed, a near irreversible process of erosion and plant loss begins. Peaks having alpine vegetation are listed in the Appendix on the Adirondack Alpine Zone. Extirpated Vegetation To date researchers have documented extirpation of the following species from the High Peaks Alpine Zone (Adirondack Conservancy 1994): Preanthes racemosa - rattlesnake root, salix herbacea - dwarf willow, Cassiope hypoides also known as Harrimanella Hyponoides - moss plant, and Poa interior - inland bluegrass. WILDLIFE Field inventories of wildlife species have not focused specifically on the HPWC. However, various inventory projects undertaken by DEC and others have included the HPWC in their scope. The species included in Appendix Tables 16-19 were compiled by combining the results of various surveys, publications, and the reports of observers. Birds As a result of the unit's transitional character in terms of climate and vegetation, there is an overlapping of typically northern, eastern and southern bird species. According to New York State Breeding Bird Atlas data, 152 species of birds are believed to breed within the HPWC (Appendix Table 16). Some species thought to occur occasionally within the unit are not shown in the Bird Atlas data. Birds associated with marshes, ponds, lakes and streams are numerous and include the common loon, pied billed grebe, great blue heron, green heron, American bittern, a variety of ducks, the Canada goose and shore birds such as the spotted sandpiper. The most common ducks include the black duck, mallard, wood duck, hooded merganser, and common merganser. Birds of prey common to the unit include the barred owl, great horned owl, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, and broadwinged hawk. Songbirds, such as woodpeckers, flycatchers, wrens, thrushes, vireos, warblers, blackbirds, finches, grosbeaks, and sparrows occupy one or more of the ten habitat types found in the unit. Mammals Appendix Table 17 lists mammals present in the HPWC. Larger mammals known to inhabit the HPWC include white-tailed deer, moose, black bear, coyote, lynx, bobcat, raccoon, red fox, gray fox, fisher, marten, mink, muskrat, striped skunk, river otter, beaver, porcupine, and varying hare. A variety of smaller mammals reside in the unit. They include bats, shrews, moles, and mice, along with the ermine, long-tailed weasel, eastern chipmunk, and red squirrel. Most species are distributed relatively evenly throughout the unit, although the populations of weasel, mink, muskrat, otter, and beaver are concentrated near water, and the varying hare and red squirrel are mostly confined to stands of spruce and fir. Although suitable habitats exist for the continued survival of all species presently occurring in the HPWC, the process of forest succession set in motion by wind, insects and disease, past logging and forest fires, continues to alter the composition of forest communities. Large areas are presently occupied by young forest stands which became established after disturbance. The current decline in upper-elevation stands of spruce and fir, and the widespread dieback of beech, caused by the spread of the beech bark disease, continually creates openings in the forest canopy of the unit. Forest succession is not static and consequently, locally restores habitat conditions favorable to many wildlife species. The populations of the varying hare at higher elevations may increase as young stands of spruce and fir grow beneath older stands of white birch and northern hardwoods. The marten thrive under habitat conditions brought about by natural forest disturbances. However, in the absence of any future disturbances, the maturation of climax forest communities may lead to reductions in hare and marten populations. On the other hand, the populations of various species of birds and mammals which require tree cavities for reproduction should increase as forest stands mature. White-tailed deer are found throughout the HPWC. However, the habitat conditions of the unit make it one of the least productive areas for deer in New York. The size of the deer population is limited by severe winter, insufficient deer browse and few suitable deer wintering areas. Deer wintering areas usually are lowland areas covered by forests of spruce and fir which serve as shelter when snow accumulates to depths of 20 inches or more. These same areas are used by deer nearly every winter. Severe winter weather virtually confines deer to wintering areas for long periods during which the depletion of available browse can lead to high deer mortality. Severe decline in the deer population can be traced directly to adverse winters. The carrying capacity of deer wintering areas limits the carrying capacity of the entire annual range of the deer population. Although relatively numerous, black bears are seldom encountered in the unit by hikers on the trail, although some of the more popular camping areas, such as Marcy Dam, Lake Colden, and the shore of Long Lake attract bears in search of food. Amphibians and Reptiles Relatively short summers and the long, cold winters of the HPWC limit the number of species of reptiles and amphibians. Three species of turtles, eight species of snakes, eight species of salamanders, one species of toad, and six species of frogs are believed to be residents of the HPWC (Appendix Tables 18 and 19). Species found in marshes or ponds and along wooded streams include the following: turtles - snapping, painted; snakes - northern water, redbelly, common garter, eastern ribbon, brown, ringneck; toad - American salamanders - red-spotted newt, spotted, blue-spotted, spring, two-lined, mountain dusky; frogs - bullfrog, pickerel, green, wood, mink, gray treefrog. A few species can be found under logs and leaf litter on the forest floor or in forest openings. Species listed below do not require moist surroundings to survive: snakes - ringneck, smooth green, milk, common garter; salamanders - redback; and turtle - wood. Endangered, Threatened, Species of Special Concern and Other Unique Species Four species which are found in the HPWC are included on the New York State endangered species list: the bald eagle, the golden eagle, the peregrine falcon, and the round whitefish. None of the eagle species has been confirmed as nesting in the unit. Peregrine falcon nesting sites have recently been located (1993). The round whitefish has been documented in biological surveys of Moose Pond (P# 221), Newcomb Lake, and Upper and Lower Cascade Lakes. Among the threatened species of wildlife which may be residents of the HPWC are the osprey, northern harrier, red-shouldered hawk, and spruce grouse. Although the osprey population in New York has declined along with other raptors in past decades, the population now appears to be rising naturally. According to information gathered during DEC's annual osprey surveys, no nests have been found within the HPWC, although one is located on nearby Ampersand Lake (private), and several more are scattered not too distant. An osprey was observed near Duck Hole by Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation (ALSC) field staff in 1986. The New York State Breeding Bird Atlas shows the northern harrier as a probable breeder in one of the 60 blocks which are wholly or partially contained in the HPWC (Appendix W-4). The red-shouldered hawk was a probable breeder in three blocks and a possible breeder in five. The spruce grouse was confirmed in one block and listed as possible in two. Species of special concern, as listed in Title 6 New York Code of Rules and Regulations (NYCRR) Part 182, which may be present in the HPWC, include the small-footed bat, common loon, northern raven, common nighthawk, Cooper's hawk, eastern bluebird, vesper sparrow, wood turtle, Jefferson salamander, and spotted salamander. In an extensive project undertaken to determine the status of the common loon in New York, DEC staff surveyed 557 lakes in the northern part of the state during 1984 and 1985. The survey included only six lakes located within the HPWC, and of those, one or more loons were observed only on Round Pond. Several loons were spotted on Long Lake in 1983 and 1984 by volunteers for the Adirondack Loon Preservation Project. Two loons were observed on Brueyer Pond in 1985 by ALSC field staff, who also found a pair nesting on Duck Hole in 1986. According to the Atlas, loons were confirmed breeders in seven of the unit's 60 blocks, probable breeders in five, and possible breeders in 13. The northern raven, which has not been common in the Adirondacks since the last century, is beginning to make a comeback. Ravens have been found actively nesting within the HPWC on cliffs near Upper Cascade Lake and Avalanche Lake, and just east of the unit near Chapel Pond. Ravens were confirmed breeders in five of the unit's 60 Atlas blocks, probable breeders in three, and possible breeders in 17. The presence of the small-footed bat, wood turtle, Jefferson salamander, or spotted salamander has not been confirmed in the unit. Typical Adirondack Species There are a number of wildlife species found in New York State whose habitat requirements include extensive areas of forest cover relatively undisturbed by human development. Often, like the yellow-nosed vole and the northern three-toed woodpecker, these are northern species who find the habitat conditions of the central Adirondacks similar to the boreal spruce-fir forests of Canada. A list of species whose range in New York is generally confined to the Adirondacks and which may be found within the HPWC include: Birds: Bald Eagle, Golden Eagle Osprey Peregrine Falcon Northern Raven Spruce Grouse Ring-necked Duck Common Goldeneye Common Merganser Norther Three-toed Woodpecker Gray Jay Boreal Chickadee Ruby-crowned Kinglet Philadelphia Vireo Olive-sided Flycatcher Yellow-bellied Flycatcher Tennessee Warbler Northern Parula Warbler Cape May Warbler Bay-breasted Warbler Blackpoll Warbler Gray-cheeked Thrush Swainson's Thrush Lincoln's Sparrow Rusty Blackbird Evening Grosbeak Mammals: Black Bear Bobcat Fisher Marten Moose Canada Lynx Yellow-nosed vole Significant Habitats Several areas within the HPWC which have been identified as important wildlife habitats include:  Deer Wintering Areas - Twenty-one deer wintering areas are wholly or partially contained within the HPWC: South Meadow Brook (two locations), Haystack Brook, Marcy Brook, Skylight Brook, Indian Pass Brook, Chubb River, Cold Brook - Halfway Brook, McKenna Brook, Dutton Brook, Middle Saranac Lake, Upper Saranac Lake, Stony Creek Ponds, Ampersand Brook, Palmer Brook, Cold River - Raquette River - Calkins Brook, Boulder Brook, Cold River - Moose Creek, Pine Brook (two locations), Long Lake - Round Pond, Newcomb Lake.  Historic Bald Eagle Nesting Sites - Ampersand Mountain, Livingston Pond.  Historic Golden Eagle Nesting Sites - Big Slide Mountain, Ampersand Lake (private land), Santanoni Preserve, Newcomb Lake.  Historic Peregrine Falcon Nesting Sites - Wallface Mountain, Mount Colden, Indian Pass, Panther Gorge, Cascade Lakes, Mount Clinton.  Common Loon - Round Pond, Newcomb Lake (nesting), Long Lake (edge of unit), Brueyer Pond, Duck Hole (nesting).  Northern Raven Nesting Sites - Upper Cascade Lake; Avalanche Lake.  Great Blue Heron Nesting Sites - Chubb River Wetlands.  Spruce Grouse - Chubb River Wetlands, Ausable Lakes.  Northern Three-toed Woodpecker - Indian Falls; stand of spruce and fir near Lost Pond, and Upper Chubb River watershed.  Round Whitefish - Moose Pond (P#2 221); Newcomb Lake; Cascade Lakes. Extirpated Species The elk, timber wolf, cougar and wolverine once inhabited the HPWC. All have disappeared from the Adirondacks. The mammals disappearance was mostly a result of unregulated harvest and habitat destruction in the nineteenth century; the birds more recently as victims of pesticide abuse. However, the once extirpated moose population has naturally regained a foothold in the periphery of the HPWC; whereas, projects to reestablish the peregrine falcon, bald eagle, and Canada lynx have been conducted. Moose occasionally have migrated from the north and east into the Adirondack region for decades. Since 1980, they have arrived in sufficient numbers to have established a scattered resident population, recently estimated to contain 20 or more individuals. A few sightings have been reported in the HPWC. Although moose prefer to feed on species of woody vegetation generally found in forests of earlier successional stages than those occurring in the HPWC, moose in general find later-stage forest habitats more suitable than do white-tailed deer (Garner, personal communication) and may come to occupy the unit in greater numbers in the future. Efforts to reintroduce the peregrine falcon and the bald eagle through "hacking" programs began in 1981 and 1983, respectively. In a continuing program of yearly releases, 103 falcons were "hacked" in the Adirondacks through 1988. In 1985, two falcon nests were found, one to the north and one just to the east of the HPWC, the first Adirondack nests since 1956. In 1989 seven nests were active in the Adirondacks, producing 12 young. At present one nest is known to exist within the HPWC. Other historic nesting sites within the unit may come to be occupied as the population expands. Between 1983 and 1985, 55 bald eagles were hacked within the Adirondack region. The first sexually mature eagles produced by the hacking program returned to nest in an area north of the HPWC in 1988. These nests fledged a total of five young to the wild in 1989. To date 20 young have fledged from these nests. Although most of the unit does not constitute suitable bald eagle habitat, two sites are known to have been used for nesting in the past and may come to be used again. Bald eagles have been observed in the upper reaches of the Chubb River (Hodgson, 1994). The SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, through the Adirondack Wildlife Program, completed an experimental project to reintroduce the Canada lynx to the Adirondack High Peaks region. Under permit from DEC, scientists based at the college's Huntington Forest campus in Newcomb planned to release up to 100 cats within the HPWC, the upper elevations of which support ideal lynx habitat. The first release of five lynx took place in January 1989; and, by the winter of 1990-1991, this number increased to 83 released animals. Several of the animals released so far have strayed from the unit, some have remained within the HPWC. Vehicle collisions have claimed a high percentage of the released animals. It remains to be seen whether the reintroduction experiment will lead to the establishment of a permanent lynx population within the HPWC. No breeding has been documented although sightings continue. FISHERIES Geologic Factors George (1980) provides a summary of geological events which influenced the colonization of the Adirondack ecological zone by fishes. The retreat of the glaciers about 17,000 B.P. (Before Present) was closely followed by a limited number of cold-tolerant, vagile, lacustrine species. Such species presumably had access to most Adirondack waters. At about 13,000 B.P., glacial Lake Albany with a surface elevation of 350' a.s.l. (average sea level), provided a colonizing route for Atlantean and eastern boreal species into the southern drainages of the Adirondacks. Approximately 1000 years later (12,000 B.P.) a corridor opened which allowed recolonization of several lowland fish species into the northern half of the park via the Raquette, Oswegatchie and Black Rivers. The extreme gradient, presence of barriers and impassible falls, and low fertility of many streams within the HPWC undoubtedly restricted the distribution of fishes regardless of distribution patterns in lower elevation waters. Severity of climate would act to reduce fish diversity to a few, cold-tolerant species. Reportedly, the lakes above Hanging Spear Falls on the Opalescent River (Upper Hudson watershed) were barren of fish prior to stocking efforts in the 1920's. (Greeley and Bishop, 1932). Anthropogenic Factors Approximately 300 years ago the influence of human cultures from the Old World initiated a period of rapid manipulation of the natural environment. Commercial activities precipitated substantial impacts to natural ecosystems. Slightly more than 150 years ago, canal construction opened new migration routes for fishes into the peripheral Adirondack areas. Railroads and roads were developed to support the tanning and lumbering industries, and in the late 1800's tourism rapidly expanded (George 1980). This exploitation of pristine fisheries combined with anthropogenic environmental degradation resulted in the decline of fish populations and stimulated early management efforts consisting primarily of stocking. A variety of nonnative species were distributed into the Adirondack uplands via stocking efforts described by George (1980) as "nearly maniacal". He notes that many species were "...almost endlessly dumped upon the Adirondack upland." Nonnative species were introduced and the ranges of native species, which previously had limited distributions, were extended. The result has been a homogenization of fish communities. Certain native species, notably brook trout and round whitefish, have declined due to the introduction of other fishes. Other natives, brown bullhead and creek chubs, for example, are presently much more abundant than historically, having been spread to many waters where previously absent. Consequently, fish populations in the majority of waters in today's Adirondack wilderness areas have been substantially altered by the activities of mankind. Indeed, of 1,123 Adirondack ecological zone waters surveyed by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation (ALSC) from 1984-1987, 65% contained nonnative species (Gallagher and Baker, 1990). Detailed documentation of the historic fish communities is not available. Extensive fishery survey data was first collected in the 1930's, decades after the massive stockings and introductions of the late 1800's. Reviewing work by Mathers from the 1880's and others, George (1980) has summarized what is known. Appendix 11 presents information on species known to be native, native-but-widely-introduced (NBWI), and nonnative. It should be noted that the native classification does not mean those species were found in every water nor even in a majority of waters. For example, of 1,123 waters surveyed by the ALSC which contained fish, white suckers and northern redbelly dace were found in 51 and 19 percent of the lakes, respectively (Gallagher and Baker, 1990). The other species listed as native were less widely distributed. Such distributions, after a century of introductions, demonstrate that "native" does not necessarily imply a historically ubiquitous distribution. Habitat degradation, widespread introductions of nonnative fishes, and broad dispersal of native fishes which historically had limited distributions have drastically altered the fish fauna of Adirondack waters. George (1980) states: "All of the above events have impacted the fish fauna of the Adirondack Park, often in complex and synergistic ways subverting any effort at simple explanation for changes in a particular population". Due to a paucity in early stocking records, especially for nongame species, it is impossible to determine if a particular species was native in a specific pond, even though they may have been present by the time of the first fisheries survey. The High Peaks region is one of three major areas within the Adirondack Park which have been impacted by acid precipitation. Of the 42 ponds with chemical survey data (Appendix 10), 14 have pH levels at or below 6.0; a point at which ponds are considered to be acid endangered. Seven ponds are known to be too acidic to support fish life, including the once famous brook trout fisheries of Avalanche Lake, Lake Colden, and Upper Wallface Pond. Livingston Pond, Little Ampersand Pond, and Owl Pond are three other well-known brook trout ponds which would be sterile of fish life except for liming treatments undertaken by DEC. Recent chemical data indicates that alkalinity and pH levels in Little Ampersand Pond and Owl Pond are again declining after liming treatments in the early 1970's. Present Day Fish Distribution (Ponded Waters) Thirty-two of the ponded waters of the HPWC were surveyed by the Adirondack Lake Survey Corporation (ALSC) between 1984 and 1987. DEC has additional data on 14 other waters. Appendices 9 and 10 contain data for the 46 ponded waters of the unit for which information are available, plus a listing of the 71 waters which are numbered on New York State Biological Survey overlays, but have not been surveyed. Many of these unsurveyed waters are within the flood plains of the Cold River or Pine Brook. Helicopter fly-overs of these areas during the ALSC study revealed most waters to be temporary beaver impoundments, filled with dead wood, and impossible to land upon safely (Walt Kretser, personal communication). The transitory nature of such ponded waters and their remote location preclude most survey efforts. Brook trout are the principal native salmonid within the HPWC and they exist within 25 of the 36 waters with fish species information listed in Appendix 10. Brook trout monocultures (i.e., brook trout are the only fish species in the water) occur in Little Ampersand Pond, Livingston Pond, Marcy Dam Pond and Seward Pond. Anecdotal information suggests that Calamity Pond may be a brook trout monoculture. Most brook trout waters within the HPWC are maintained through DEC stocking. There is a lack of naturally spawning populations of brook trout in HPWC lakes, which does not reflect historic conditions. Introductions of nonnative and native-but-widely-introduced (NBWI) species along with siltation have seriously impacted brook trout reproduction in HPWC lakes. Without active fisheries management brook trout would decline precipitously within the unit. Lake trout are the second most important native salmonid in the HPWC. Natural populations of lake trout occur in Newcomb Lake and Moose Pond (P# 221) on the Santanoni Preserve. Lakers in these two waters may be an Adirondack 'heritage' strain as there is no record of this species ever being stocked. Big Pine Pond also has a naturally reproducing population of lake trout, but heritage status is questionable because lake trout were stocked at least four times historically. Lake trout also are present in Dawson Pond. Splake, brown trout and kokanee salmon are the only nonnative, historically associated, salmonids that may be present within the HPWC. A remnant splake (a hybrid cross between lake trout and brook trout) population found in the Cascade Lakes will soon disappear. Brown trout are present in the Cascade Lakes and Big Pine Pond. Kokanee salmon may remain in Big Pine Pond if there is natural reproduction. Northern pike are present in Lower County Line Pond, Mud Pond and Pickerel Pond. Smallmouth bass are found in good numbers in Round Pond. Appendix 11 lists common Adirondack upland fish species as provided by George (1980). These species are classified as either native, nonnative, or native-but-widely-introduced (NBWI). As discussed earlier in this section, not all of the native and NBWI species listed in Appendix 11 are necessarily endemic or common within the HPWC. In fact, the white sucker is the only species that sustains itself in more than 40% of the waters that contain fish. Common shiner, blacknose dace, northern redbelly dace, lake chub, longnose sucker, finescale dace, and redbreast sunfish occur in a scattering of waters. In general, NBWI species are the most common naturally sustained fishes within the HPWC: Brown bullhead occur in 14 lakes; pumpkinseed occur in 13 lakes; and, creek chub occur in 15 lakes of the 36 with known fish communities. Yellow perch, a nonnative to the Adirondacks, are perhaps the most severe competitor with brook trout. The HPWC contains four waters with yellow perch: Corner Pond, Mud Pond, Pickerel Pond and Round Pond. None of these waters currently supports trout, although Round Pond and Corner Pond were historically good brook trout waters. A nonnative cyprinid species, the golden shiner, is found in 10 of 36 HPWC lakes with fish data. Golden shiners are also serious competitors with brook trout. Golden shiner have increased in abundance within unit waters in recent times. Prior to 1970, the species occurred in only four waters. Present Day Fish Distribution (Streams) Brook trout are the dominant fish species, although smallmouth bass can be found in the lower portion of the Cold River. About 111 miles of the 220 miles of streams within the HPWC are small and steep with little potential for management. Fish populations in the larger portions of streams consist largely of small, slow-growing, wild brook trout in association with native minnows and slimy sculpins. Endangered, Threatened, Species of Special Concern Round whitefish is the only fish within the HPWC which is listed as endangered by New York State. The round whitefish was historically abundant in many Adirondack lakes, but has seriously declined in numbers and distribution. George (1980) states that the species "...must be considered highly vulnerable to competition and predation by invading southern forms". The HPWC includes several lakes with round whitefish populations: the Cascade Lakes harbor a modest population of round whitefish, while Newcomb Lake and Moose Pond (P# 221) had sparse populations when surveyed in 1972. Lower Cascade Lake served as the brood stock water in efforts to restore the round whitefish to other lakes in the 1970's. There are no historic or present day records of threatened or special concern species for ponded waters in the HPWC. Heritage Strains Adirondack ponds are home to several "heritage" strains of brook trout believed to be unadulterated by exposure to domestic strains. Horn Lake, Little Tupper Lake and Windfall Pond are examples of lakes which have provided heritage strains of brook trout. Undiscovered heritage strains of brook trout may still exist in some unsurveyed ponds. Creation of additional populations of heritage strain brook trout helps protect their genotype(s) from accidental contamination which may occur in the future in their natal waters. Refugia for heritage strains must be isolated from other waters. Competition and predation by introduced species have greatly reduced the abundance of brook trout sustained by natural reproduction. Only about 40 of the traditional brook trout ponds in public ownership in the Adirondack Park now support viable, self-sustaining brook trout populations. The potential for successful natural reproduction is greatly enhanced when interspecific competition and predation are reduced or eliminated. Human introductions of nonnatives and natives which had limited distributions have nearly eliminated natural brook trout monocultures in the Adirondacks. Historic brook trout monocultures have been documented in the Adirondack Park (Appendix 13) and the survival of even a few such unique communities through the massive environmental disturbances and species introductions of the 19th and 20th centuries is quite remarkable. Survey data indicates that Seward Pond in the HPWC is among the ponds that were historic brook trout monocultures, and anecdotal evidence suggests that Calamity Pond may also be a historic brook trout monoculture. Brook trout populations in combination with few other native species also occurred. The Duck Hole, Mountain Pond and Palmer Pond in the HPWC are brook trout waters with only one other species occurring in each pond. Brook trout were particularly successful at colonizing and thrived in the relative absence of competing and predacious fishes. George (1980) states: "Under primeval conditions, the brook trout was nearly ubiquitous in the Adirondacks. Its agility, great range in size and facility in rapidly flowing water allowed it to spread widely, perhaps even concurrently with the demise of the glaciers, thus explaining its presence in unstocked waters above currently impassable waterfalls." Watershed morphometry probably severely limited the diversity of fishes in the HPWC. The HPWC is comprised mainly of first and second order streams, and fish diversity is normally low in such headwater portions of watersheds (Hynes 1972). Topography would have made that lack of diversity particularly prominent in the HPWC. Individual streams draining the HPWC have extended stretches of extremely high gradients which can exceed 200 feet/mile. While these streams have not been ground checked, barriers are inevitable at such gradients. For example, the West Branch Ausable from the top of Monument Falls to the downstream end of the flume has a gradient of about 115 feet/mile and includes barriers at The Flume, at a falls upstream of the Whiteface bridge and at High Falls. Hanging Spear Falls on the Opalescent River has long been recognized as a fish barrier (Greeley and Bishop, 1932). In general, while the Adirondacks historically had fish communities with low diversity, the HPWC would have had exceptionally low diversities. Brook trout have the extreme vagility necessary to have naturally colonized the HPWC waters and, therefore, were probably particularly abundant in the unit. Also, historic brook trout monocultures were most likely to have occurred in such headwater areas. The decline in brook trout associated with the introduction of other fishes is a result of both predation and competition for food. Brook trout feed primarily on invertebrates. Many other fishes, including white sucker, longnose sucker, redbreast sunfish, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, yellow perch, and the cyprinids (minnows, shiners, and dace) also feed primarily on invertebrates (Scott and Crossman 1973). In low fertility waters such as Adirondack ponds, competition for such forage can be intense. In addition to competing with brook trout for food, many fishes prey directly on brook trout. Northern pike, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, and rock bass are highly piscivorous. Species which may feed on eggs and/or fry include yellow perch, brown bullhead, pumpkinseed, creek chub, common shiner, white sucker and longnose sucker (Scott and Crossman 1973). The relative importance of competition versus predation in the decline of brook trout is not known for individual waters, but the result is the same regardless of the mechanism. Natural reproduction by brook trout is also very sensitive to impacts from sedimentation caused, for example, by logging, fires and other human activities. During the 1800's, the High Peaks supported a logging industry. Substantial areas were denuded and subsequently subjected to wildfires. For additional information on logging see Section III. Due to their reproduction behavior, brook trout are among the most susceptible of all Adirondack fauna to the impacts of sedimentation. Brook trout spawn in the fall, burying their eggs in gravel. Flow must be maintained through the gravel, around the eggs, until hatching occurs the following spring. Sand or fine sediments restrict flow around the eggs resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen. Degradation of spawning habitat and abundance of competing fish species severely limit brook trout natural reproduction. Therefore, brook trout populations in many ponds are maintained by DEC's annual stocking program. Most waters (approximately 80 percent of potential trout ponds in wilderness areas), cannot be reclaimed due to technical or logistical reasons. For instance, reclamation is precluded in ponds having extensive bog and swamp areas which provide refugia for fishes during treatment. The need for suitable barrier dam sites or natural waterfalls to prevent reinfestation is another constraint. Managing trout ponds in the HPWC which cannot sustain adequate natural reproduction serves to preserve populations of this native species and to provide opportunities for quality wilderness fishing experiences (one akin to that which primeval explorers may have encountered). Recently, acidic deposition has impacted the aquatic resources of the Adirondacks. The ALSC surveyed 1,469 Adirondack waters, 24 percent of which had pH levels less than 5.0 (Kretser et al. 1989). Historic data and water chemistry analysis demonstrates that many of those waters were historically circumneutral and able to support fishes. Although less well studied, streams have also been impacted by acidification (Colquhoun 1984). Avalanche Lake, Lake Colden, the Flowed Lands, and the Wallface Ponds have all become too acidic to support fish life within the last three decades. Livingston Pond, Little Ampersand Pond and Owl Pond have maintained adequate pH levels only through liming efforts by the DEC. It is probable that smaller, high elevation lakes such as Lake Tear of the Clouds and Lake Arnold are acidic. Recent chemical survey data suggests that the Duck Hole and Marcy Dam Pond have declining pH and acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) values. The insidious effects of acidic deposition on the aquatic ecosystems in wilderness waters can be managed via addition of neutralizing agents to restore and/or maintain natural water quality characteristics. Extirpated Species There are no known extirpated fish species that were indigenous to HPWC waters. SECTION III MAN AND THE WILDERNESS ENVIRONMENT HISTORY By 1860, prior to the Civil War, New York had become a leading industrial state, yet the High Peaks Region of the north central Adirondacks was virtually unknown to outsiders. Few Europeans had explored its environs, and native Americans, most notably the Algonquins had been occasional visitors. The high mountainous terrain and inhospitable climate discouraged most early visitors. Both the Colonial government and the state, after the American Revolution, made large grants or patents of its so called "wild forest lands" to promote development. The present day bounds of the HPWC lie in three of these patents: Totten and Crossfield's (1770), Old Military Tract (1786), and Macomb's Great Purchase (1792). Speculators purchased these tracts and marketed them for agriculture, mining, and timbering. Although little mining was done in the High Peaks proper, an early iron ore industry flourished in outlying communities. As early as 1809, an iron ore forge was erected on the Chubb River near Lake Placid. The Adirondack Iron and Steel Co. was in full operation at the Upper Works near Newcomb in 1826. One of its successors, McIntyre Iron Company owned all of the southern High Peaks region, including Lake Colden and Mount Marcy. Closely associated with this "wild" region were the exploits of early guides such as John Cheney (Upper Works), Harvey Holt and Orson Phelps (Keene Valley), Mitchell Sabattis (Long Lake), and a host of others who introduced the public to the region. Orson Phelps reputedly blazed the first trail to Mt Marcy in 1861. Phelps had been preceded by Professor Ebenezer Emmons of the Geological Survey of New York who first recorded the ascent of Mt. Marcy in 1837. Emmons named the summit after then Governor William Marcy. He also named Seward, Dix, McIntyre, McMartin (now named Colden), and Henderson. As timber supplies dwindled in the more accessible portion of the northern Adirondacks, timbermen soon looked to the vast forests of the High Peaks region. From the lowland swamps up to the highest slopes, any tree that was commercially valuable and accessible was harvested. Scot Pond (elevation 3,000 ft.) was used as a log holding pond and flush dam to transport logs downstream. Near the 3,700 ft. contour on Wright Peak, cut stumps and the remains of a tote road, attest to past logging (Ketchledge, 1967). The High Peaks region is often referred to as "Colvin Country" in tribute to Verplanck Colvin, Superintendent of the Adirondack Survey (1872-79), who initiated the first detailed survey of the region. Colvin's notes, records, maps, and annual reports of his surveys, defined the region and instilled a public awareness that in part, eventually led to the creation of the Adirondack forest preserve in 1885. Many of his original survey monuments can still be found today on High Peaks summits. Tourism became a major Adirondack commercial enterprise by the 1890's and local hotels and mountain resorts were popular throughout the country. Adirondack Lodge (later renamed Adirondak Loj) opened its doors to the public in 1880. Henry Van Hoevenberg, its proprietor, afforded his guests with over fifty miles of hiking trails near Heart Lake. Similar accommodations were found in Keene-Keene Valley, Lake Placid, Long Lake, St. Huberts, and Saranac Lake. The Cascade House at Cascade Lakes served stage coach travelers enroute to Lake Placid. Much of the present day trail system is an outgrowth of the early "hotel trails" which followed logging roads and/or footpaths to favored destinations, usually a lake or a mountain summit. Adirondack guides and their sports were impressed with the quality and abundance of brook trout available in High Peaks lakes. Big game hunters were drawn to the area in hopes of taking a white-tail deer or bear in a pristine setting. Even into the 1930's High Peaks' lakes such as Lake Colden, Avalanche Lake and Livingston Pond produced memorable angling opportunities for brook trout. Engels (1978) states: "Nowhere but in the Canadian wild or the more remote waters of Maine could you have found such squaretail trout. ...Trout of one to one and a half pounds were common; we occasionally caught one of two to three, and Clint West, the state's resident ranger, had taken them to four and a half." The availability of remote hike-in trout fishing and hunting so close to the urban centers of the East Coast has been an enduring natural feature of the HPWC. To the west, the Adirondack Canoe Route has served as a historic waterway for centuries. First used by native peoples, the route soon became a main travel route in the central Adirondacks by the 1840's. Long Lake Village, at the southernmost edge of the HPWC, was settled by 1830. Many of its village craftsmen contributed to the early development of the Adirondack guideboat. During the summer and fall of 1903, six hundred thousand acres of forest land burned throughout the Adirondacks. (Suter, 1904). Piles of tinder dry logging slash, a 72 day drought, and unseasonably high winds contributed to the fire storms. Fires raged over Cascade, Dix, Porter, Mt. Van Hoevenberg, Big Slide, and onto the north slopes of Mt. Marcy. South Meadows and the area, surrounding and including Adirondak Loj, succumbed to flames. Keene, Keene Valley, and St. Huberts were threatened by similar engulfing fires. Fall rains and moderating temperatures finally helped to extinguish the fires. The scenario repeated itself in 1908 and 1909 when an additional 300,000 acres burned Park wide. Prompted by these events, the State's forest fire detection and fire fighting force was enlarged and updated. Fire towers were erected atop Ampersand Mountain and Kempshall Mountain 1911 and on Mount Adams in 1912. Reform of lumbering practices, such as enactment of the "top lopping law" to reduce logging slash, also played a significant role in reducing the spread of fires. Hurricanes and damaging storms have also had a pronounced effect on the High Peaks. On November 25, 1950, the most destructive storm to ever hit New York State whipped across the Adirondacks with devastating force. The High Peaks region was not spared. Trees lay everywhere blown down by 50 mph winds. In the HPWC, the worst blowdown occurred along the Cold River, the west slopes of Santanoni, Panther, and Couchsachraga, northwest through the Sewards, and down along the Raquette River to Axton. Many trails were clogged with fallen trees, and interior travel was impeded until a final clean up was completed in 1955. Following World War II, as Americans became more affluent and had more leisure time for outdoor activities, recreational use of the Adirondack forest preserve, and in particular, the High Peaks intensified and became the focus of public attention and concern. This concern led to several legislative studies and commissions. The High Peaks were often mentioned due to their valuable scenic and natural resources which attracted heavy use. One such commission, the Temporary Study Commission on the Future of the Adirondacks, recommended a classification system which incorporated wilderness designation and protection. Affirmed later by the Adirondack Park Agency Act and its subsequent Adirondack Park State Land Master Plan (APSLMP), the High Peaks region was legally designated wilderness in 1972. The Adirondack Park Agency, in consultation with DEC, and with public support, concluded that significant portions of the High Peaks region were in a wilderness or near wilderness condition despite past human influences. Both agencies agreed that a new management emphasis and direction was needed. Since the 1960's the High Peaks and several other areas in the Adirondacks have drawn the attention of environmentalists and scientists as the insidious effects of acid precipitation have taken their toll on the aquatic and terrestrial biota of high elevation ecosystems. Once famous trout fisheries in Lake Colden, Avalanche Lake, the Flowed Lands, and Upper Wallface Pond diminished and disappeared as pH levels decreased. The HPWC is a valuable natural setting for research by many disciplines on this national and worldwide problem. HISTORIC SITES Archaeological-historic research in the HPWC has neither been extensive nor well defined. Native peoples were believed to have traveled through the unit, but no evidence of their presence has been revealed. Historic sites are few; the most notable include:  Adirondac (McIntyre) - Upper Works: headquarters of the Adirondac Iron Works Co., 1826. Remnants of a blast furnace can still be seen situated on private land bordering wilderness.  Buckley Clearing: former lumber camp site on Sanford-Marcy Trail via Twin Brook, 1880's.  Camp #4 - Santanoni: early lumber camp site.  Colden Plaque - Lake Colden: commemorates the purchase of the summits of Mt. Marcy, McIntyre, Seward, Indian Pass, Flowed Lands, Lake Colden, and Avalanche via a 75,400-acre land purchase with 1916 Bond Act funds.  Henderson Monument - Calamity Pond: memorial to David Henderson, proprietor of the Adirondac Iron Works, who was accidentally killed on the site, 1845.  Long Lake - Round Pond Canal: represents an attempt to join the Hudson and Raquette River watersheds via a canal to facilitate log driving. Approximately 0.3 miles of waterway was constructed before the project was discontinued in 1846.  Mother Johnson's Boarding House - Raquette Falls: early hotel site at the carry around Raquette Falls, 1860-1875. Marked by a plaque to Charles W. Bryan, author of "The Raquette".  Mount Marcy Summit: plaque commemorating the centennial of the first ascent of the summit by Professor Ebenezer Emmons and party, 1837-1937.  Noah Rondeau's Hermitage - Cold River: campsite of the "Hermit of Cold River". Rondeau's cabin was removed to the Adirondack Museum, Blue Mountain Lake, New York, in 1957.  Ouluska Pass Brook: early lumber camp site, 1880's-1890's.  Scotts Clearing and Lumber Dam: early lumber camp site, flush dam, and sluiceway, 1880's.  Shattuck Clearing: early lumber camp site and a former ranger station location.  Slant Rock - Johns Brook Valley: traditional camping spot, the huge rock forms a natural shelter, used since the early 1860's.  South Meadows: former lumber dam site and early village site; some foundations can still be found.  Wright Peak: plaque identifies the crash site of a U.S. Air Force B-47 bomber, serves as a memorial to its four crewmen killed there in 1962.  Historic Camp Santanoni: is located just outside the HPWC boundary in the Vanderwhacker Wild Forest, Town of Newcomb, Essex Co.  Montgomery Clearing - Moose Pond, Santanoni: subsistence farm circa 1840; later lumber camp 1950's. CULTURAL RESOURCES The High Peaks Wilderness Area has been an important part of the cultural heritage of the State. The area has a pristine beauty due to its deep forests, abundant lakes, streams and waterfalls, majestic mountains and the rich assortment of fish, wildlife and plant communities that abound within its borders. Although intensive use of limited areas of the High Peaks Wilderness has been a problem, the area in general, and especially specific areas of the High Peaks today, continue to reflect a wilderness quality. This quality provides the unique opportunity for visitors to better appreciate the delicate ecological balance of life. Preservation of this wilderness was a major contribution to the conservation movement of our country. The High Peaks have also provided a spiritual uplift for many generations of New Yorkers and countless others by allowing its visitors to experience tranquility and solitude in such a magnificent natural setting. Writers, philosophers, painters and government officials have been inspired by the Adirondacks and the High Peaks. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Grover Cleveland took solace in the natural beauty of the area. Many writers have expounded on the importance of our natural environment to meet some of our basic human needs. Important Adirondack painters included Charles Cromwell Ingham, Thomas Cole, Asher B. Durand, Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait, Samuel Colman, Alexander Helwig Wyant, and Winslow Homer, most of whom were considered part of the Hudson River School of painters. This school was the first truly American school of painting which lasted from approximately the mid to late 1800's. Paintings of this school characteristically contained beautiful landscapes and showed a great reverence for nature. Seneca Ray Stoddard was a popular figure from this era for the hundreds of landscape photographs he took to document the majestic beauty of the Adirondacks and the High Peaks. Although paintings, lithographs and etchings were the most popular art forms in the 1800's, advanced technology has given more prominence to photography and other forms of media in more recent times as used by Elliot Porter, Albert Gates, Nathan Farb and many others. Prominent artists, photographers and painters continue to be stimulated by the uniqueness of the area. The lack of physical development on the landscape of the HPWC is one of its most important attributes and continues to make it the unique place it is today. This very lack of development is a magnetic force which attracts so many to the area's beauty. (O'Neil, 1994) ECONOMICS The impact of the HPWC on local and regional economies can be measured in a variety of ways including a review of the types of industries and jobs in the Adirondacks that are associated with the HPWC and the impact of the Forest Preserve on land values. Although exact dollar figures do not exist for all indicators of economic activity associated with the HPWC, a general picture can be drawn. Tourism is on the rise and is one of the most important industries in the Adirondacks. Much of its success depends on the backdrop the HPWC provides for this industry. There are numerous guiding services, motels, bed and breakfasts, country inns, camps, clubs, gas stations, restaurants, grocery stores and equipment stores that depend on the attraction of the HPWC to draw customers. Hikers, campers, fishermen, and hunters, especially deer hunters, who use the HPWC spend a certain amount of money on services and lodging facilities. However, since neither public use figures nor estimates of local expenditures are available, an overall economic impact figure associated with users of the HPWC cannot be precisely determined. Although precise figures for the HPWC are not available, the economic importance of angling to Essex, Franklin and Hamilton counties which surround the unit, was estimated during a statewide angler survey conducted in 1989 by the DEC (Connelly and Brown, 1990). In Essex county, an estimated 56,460 anglers fished 535,940 days and generated $11,544,680 in location expenditures. Franklin county figures were 36,860 anglers fishing 399,780 days who generated $7,037,370 in location expenditures. In Hamilton county the figures were 54,380 anglers, 403,760 days, and $9,178,590 dollars. The total location expenditures for the three county area containing the HPWC was $27.8 million. Although the fishery resource for these counties is by no means concentrated in the High Peaks, the unit does attract anglers via its intrinsic resources and adds significantly to the aesthetic appeal of the whole region. Brook trout are the primary game fish species within the HPWC. Connelly et. al. (1988) estimated that anglers spent approximately $48.10 per day fishing for coldwater gamefish. Within DEC's Region 5, which includes the HPWC, 1.39 million days were expended fishing brook trout. Angling for brook trout is obviously an important economic activity in the Adirondacks. The proximity of private land to the HPWC is often a selling point in real estate sales and this, coupled with road access, land availability, proximity to multiple uses and waterfront, has a beneficial impact on land values. Land adjacent to the HPWC in Keene, Keene Valley, Heart Lake and Lake Placid command some of the highest prices in the Adirondacks for these reasons. A study by Cornell University also suggests that the proximity of land to the Forest Preserve can significantly increase the value of real estate (Kay, 1985). There are also other less tangible economic impacts provided by the HPWC. Due to the absence of industry and associated pollution on these lands, there are no polluting effects on downwind or downstream areas requiring costly mitigative measures. In fact, the HPWC enhances the quality of the environment by filtering water and transported air pollutants and by providing oxygen to the atmosphere. It can also be pointed out that the HPWC has a beneficial economic impact on those who derive creative inspiration from the High Peaks for writing, painting, photography, and other kinds of occupations when they visit the High Peaks themselves or when they derive beneficial psychological effects by just knowing the High Peaks Wilderness exists. No dollar value can be placed on this impact. SECTION IV WILDERNESS USE AND USERS A thorough understanding of wilderness use is needed before any wilderness management options are considered. Not only do many wilderness values stem from a wide range of wilderness uses, but so do most threats to wilderness, and, as a result, most management problems (Hendee and others, 1990). INTRINSIC USES Although recreation is the most obvious use of wilderness, the APSLMP describes with equal status a variety of wilderness purposes, specifically those that have ecological, geological or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, and historical importance. Commonly referred to as intrinsic uses, belonging to the essential nature of wilderness, they include the following:  Indirect Use Millions of people who never set foot in the HPWC, or for that matter, any wilderness, derive personal satisfaction from knowing that such areas do exist (Van Valkenburg, 1987). These people are referred to as indirect users. Their satisfaction can come from television, books, photos, films, lectures, or by the accounts of others who have been there. Indirect users also include those who see the High Peaks from afar or from the periphery and take pleasure in the natural beauty they observe or know is there. And, there are those who value keeping open the option to visit such areas if they choose to do so or wish that their children may have the same opportunity in the future. Whether or not they ever actually visit a wilderness, it is worth something to them to know they could (Hass and others, 1986).  Scientific Use One of the major values of the HPWC is its potential for scientific use and study. The unit is one of the best and most extensive outdoor laboratories in the Adirondacks, particularly for the study of biological sciences and ecology. It offers relatively natural, unmodified environments, and freely operating natural processes spread out over a large area. As New York State becomes more developed and modified by man, the contrast between wilderness and non-wilderness will increase and the values afforded by a wilderness laboratory such as this are greatly enhanced. For example, High Peaks environments are frequently used to establish scientific benchmarks and baselines to judge and evaluate the impacts of development outside wilderness. The study of any species, as for example an insect pest, in its natural habitat can lead to more intelligent management of that same species in a modified environment where there may be no natural controls present. HPWC wild lands are necessary for the conservation of biological diversity. The geographical position of the HPWC creates unusual variations in elevation, climate, soils, vegetation, and aquatic conditions have created a varied and fascinating flora and fauna. On a broad scale, the HPWC serves as a vast genetic reservoir to those species which are or may become rare, endangered, or threatened with extinction. Many of these species are sensitive to human disturbance and require large blocks of undeveloped wild land for all or part of their life histories. Research has shown that most of the alpine vegetative communities exhibit a low tolerance to human disturbance, and that boreal fish communities consisting of one or a few species are highly susceptible to invasion by nonindigenous fishes as a result of mans' activities. The HPWC can provide habitats for these species, communities, and ecosystems. Some disturbance-sensitive species of wildlife, such as the osprey, bald eagle, great blue heron, common loon, pine marten, and Canada lynx require vast expanses of undisturbed forest (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Introductions of nonindigenous fish species to coldwater lakes, which historically had fish communities consisting of only a few species such as brook trout or round whitefish, have frequently lead to the displacement of the original, self-sustaining population. The HPWC can serve as a refugia for these simple communities and thus, on a larger scale, serves to maintain the diversity of natural communities in New York State.  Educational Use The HPWC is used for educational purposes - as a site for field trips, study areas, basic research, and as a source of instructional examples. Some educational uses, based on long-term ecological processes, may be wilderness dependent, but for many topics, other areas outside the wilderness that are less fragile could be used as a substitute for this type of activity. Many educational uses are more akin to recreational use when wilderness is used to teach woodsmanship and survival skills. Whether this use is really dependent on the HPWC as a backdrop has been questioned. (Young and DiGregoria, 1987). What does seem to be needed is a large, roadless area as found in nearby wild forest areas. Some courses teach wilderness values as well as low-impact use which are more appropriate.  Therapeutic and Personal Development The HPWC environment is sometimes used too as a setting for therapeutic programs designed to alleviate abnormal behavior or psychological problems. Mentally disturbed people are taken in small groups on canoe trips and backpacking trips. Some participants seem to benefit from isolation, close contact with staff, challenge, and group support. This use may or may not be wholly wilderness dependent, but it does occur in the HPWC on a small scale. Other programs, directed toward personal development combining leadership, education, self-discovery, and therapy are aimed at more healthy clients. Working in a wilderness setting, these programs develop leadership skills, personal confidence, social interaction, and instill a respect for natural resources. It is difficult to say whether such programs really depend on the HPWC or just need large roadless areas. Some uses have religious and spiritual purposes that draw on remote wilderness settings.  Clean Air and Water The steady build-up of green house gases in the atmosphere and their resultant effects on global warming are a worldwide, national and state environmental issue. In the process of seeking ways to slow the build-up of "greenhouse gases," particularly carbon dioxide, HPWC trees and forests play an important role in enhancing New York's air quality. Trees through photosynthesis, convert carbon dioxide into sugars, cellulose, and oxygen. They stabilize temperatures and reduce atmospheric pollution (Weiner, 1975). When one considers the expanse of the HPWC forest (over 226,000 acres in one block), in conjunction with the entire Forest Preserve, this indirect use is gaining greater recognition and importance. The value of the HPWC for watershed protection is often overlooked. One of the original purposes for creating the Adirondack forest preserve, was the protection of watersheds. The early concerns that led to the Forest Preserve centered around the dependence of the citizens, industry and commerce of the State on the tremendous water resources of the Adirondacks and Catskills and the need for forest cover to protect both the quantity and quality of those waters (VanValkenburg, 1985). Wilderness designation offers long-term protection of these waters at a relatively low cost to taxpayers. The DEC is committed to maintain State water resources in a high quality condition for human consumption, fish and wildlife needs, and recreational use. Wilderness watersheds fulfill an important part of this commitment. RECREATIONAL USE The HPWC is often a person's first, and sometimes only, encounter with Adirondack wilderness. It has historically attracted greater concentrations of visitors than any other Adirondack wilderness area. For these reasons, it is important for DEC managers to fully understand HPWC use so that visitors can be ensured a positive wilderness experience with the least amount of impact on the environment. These two dimensions pose many management challenges and opportunity necessary to achieve the proper balance between wilderness protection and permitted uses as required by the APSLMP. Of the 16 designated wilderness areas in the Adirondack Park, none is perhaps better known than the High Peaks Wilderness. Its recognition is world wide. As a result, the HPWC receives more visitors than any other wilderness in New York State and ranks as one of the most popular in the northeast. The reasons for such a drawing power are many. A location near dense population centers, coupled with a reputation as an easily accessible, highly attractive natural area, offering unique experiences found nowhere else in New York State, invites heavy use. Personalities and past associations contribute to its recognition. Publicity in magazines, books, films, photos, etc., add to its popularity. Wallace describes this effect in Ecotourism - A Guide for Planners and Managers (1993) and points out "Governmental agencies have little input or control over national advertising images about their wildlands that form visitor expectations." Many parts of the wilderness, especially the eastern High Peaks, have areas of concentrated use where impacts on soil, water, vegetation, and fauna have resulted in unnatural changes to the environment. These effects can also alter the quality of the visitor experience. The APSLMP requires an assessment of the recreational carrying capacity of this unit, with particular attention given to portions of the wilderness subject to overuse. Recreational carrying capacity can mean many things, but basically it is a term used to describe how much use an area can sustain within limits of acceptable change before managerial controls are necessary to offset and mitigate adverse impacts. To make this assessment, we need to know more about the dimensions of recreational use as it affects the HPWC. This topic is discussed in detail in SECTION VII: item D. Carrying Capacity Concepts, page 125. Estimating Number of Users - Total Use Wilderness recreational use in general is difficult to measure. The HPWC has 20 developed trailheads and numerous access points, especially along the many highways forming its borders. Use is dispersed over such a wide area, it is nearly impossible to make any sort of head count, as is done in auto-access campgrounds. Even if this were possible, it would be prohibitively expensive to observe all entry points. Therefore, a combination of techniques are employed to estimate HPWC use. These include: sample observations, electronic counters, estimates based on trail registers and camping permits, parking lot counts, staff impressions, field diaries, inventory and analysis of site conditions, and sometimes, just educated guessing. Accuracy varies from good to very poor across the unit; some locations yield better use data than others. But, there is a clear trend towards increased use. Data from the following table shows HPWC use has steadily increased over the past 13 years. HIGH PEAKS VISITATION 1983 - 1995* YEAR NUMBER OF VISITORS 1995 131,110 1994 123,092 1993 114,067 1992 109,412 1991 100,751 1990 93,233 1989 89,647 1988 83,983 1987 84,774 1986 78,779 1985 67,354 1984 63,405 1983 57,016 *Source - Trailhead Registrations Prior to 1983, visitation data is unreliable and not always comparable between years. Trailhead registers, the primary data source, were added, removed or changed locations frequently and reporting methods varied. Since 1983, register locations have remained fixed and reporting methods have been standardized. DEC staff estimated total visitor use exceeded 140,000 visitors in 1995, but how much higher no one knows for sure until better data collection methods are developed. Despite its limitations, DEC managers feel the data is satisfactory enough for management planning purposes, but always to be used with caution. As Hendee and others (1990) point out in their classic textbook Wilderness Management "Visitor use data need not be perfect to be useful, and any improvement only adds to the value of the information". However, by themselves, total wilderness use figures indicate little about the pressures sustained by the resource nor the experiences of visitors. Other factors must be considered. Distribution of Use Intrawilderness use across the HPWC is largely influenced by three factors: location and concentration of natural attractions, degree of access and development, and amount of usable terrain suitable for recreation, especially hiking and camping. Most visitors are attracted to the eastern High Peaks because of easy access and its concentration of high mountains and lakes offering unique alpine settings and experiences. Use distribution is further affected by trail and entry point densities. Some areas, like the eastern High Peaks region are well supplied with extensive trail networks while the western High Peaks have a sparse trail system with few entry points. Another factor often overlooked is usable terrain. This relates to the amount of land available in the HPWC for distributing recreational use which is severely limited by steepness of slope, rock, shallow and wet soils, sensitive vegetation, and the area occupied by lakes, streams, and wetlands. It is not surprising most visitors enter the HPWC through only a few trailheads. About 72 percent of all visitors enter the unit through just five of the unit's twenty developed trailheads: Adirondak Loj, Johns Brook, Cascade, South Meadows, and Ampersand. Distribution and amount of visitor use is measured and analyzed by trailhead registration at selected entry points (see following table). Visitor Use By Trailhead TRAILHEAD NUMBER OF VISITORS REGISTERED 1993 1995 Adirondak Loj (#1) 37,028 43,628 Adirondak Loj (#2) 2,073 1,928 Indian Pass 6,367 7,792 South Meadows & Klondike 8,248 8,806 Johns Brook 16,330 18,039 Cascade 11,193 15,266 AMR - High Peaks 8,688 9,003 Long Lake Boat Launch 2,811 3,113 Northville-Placid Trail - Long Lake 1,203 1,414 Northville-Placid Trail - Averyville 1,689 1,739 Santanoni Preserve (Moose Pond) 875 1,197 Elk Lake - High Peaks 1,378 1,365 Upper Works 4,793 5,477 East River 1,003 1,285 Bradley 1,053 1,145 Ampersand 5,480 5,967 Stony Creek 1,860 1,838 Seward (Blueberry) 1,995 2,108 TOTAL 114,067 131,110 The table portrays the minimum number of visitors entering through developed trailheads that can be reasonably documented. The problem is that not everyone registers. There is no regulation requiring registration. Registration is voluntary; it's up to the visitor to register or not. Use is consistently understated. Forest rangers have found young adults, large groups, sportsmen and those visitors making short trips tend to register less (Fish, 1994). Where multiple access points exist, register location also plays an important role in the frequency of registrations. Compliance rates vary from trailhead to trailhead. For example, registration checks at Ampersand Mountain, a popular day-use trail, indicate a 50 percent rate of registration, whereas at Adirondak Loj, 96 percent of all visitors registered. It appears registration rates drop significantly in winter, especially for day-users. Register location may be a significant factor. For example, a register location for bare ground visitors may not be suitable for winter visitors when approaching on skis or snowshoes. Sportsmen, especially hunters, seldom access the HPWC via trails with registers or infrequently sign in if they do. Group Size People come in all types of groups -- families, friends, groups sponsored by various organizations -- and a few travel alone. Party sizes are generally small. Approximately 75 percent of all registered groups had between two and six persons. Groups of two to three persons are the most common party size. Large groups (ten or more) account for about 15 percent of total day and overnight use and have an average party size of 12. However, up to 300 persons have been documented on easy access trails like Ampersand and Cascade. While large groups do not represent a significant proportion of total use, they can create substantial adverse impact. For example, large day use groups have actually displaced smaller groups from trails and create trailhead parking problems (Middleton, 1993). Research in the HPWC and in Federal wilderness areas indicates that large parties add greatly to overuse problems. Large groups of 10 or more persons visit the HPWC predominately in summer and fall. Even though large groups represent only a small proportion of total use, they do have a disproportionate impact on natural resources and on the experiences of other visitors (Cole and others, 1987). Many groups are composed of teens from camps, church organizations, schools, scouts, etc. A large portion of fall use in September and early in October is dominated by college groups who use the area for student orientation programs or for outing purposes. On some weekends, 30-40 of these groups may be present in the unit at one time for day and overnight use. Often novices, these groups visit the HPWC to learn outdoor skills, develop personal growth, or seek adventure. A study by Young and DiGregoria (1987), entitled Patterns and Characteristics of Large Group Use in the HPWC, suggests that many of these groups may not be wilderness dependent. That is, they do not require a remote-designated wilderness to accomplish their objectives of teaching outdoor skills. While many groups were cognizant of overuse problems in the HPWC, they were unfamiliar with other lesser-used wilderness or wild forest areas. Many wilderness managers believe that large groups may also cause excessive tent site wear and tear, soil compaction, congestion on trails, generally a higher noise level, and a greater visual impact (Lime 1984, Cole and others 1987). During 1995, 706 group camping permits were issued to groups of 10 or more individuals. Groups of 10 or more are required by regulation (Title 6 NYCRR, Part 100.4) to obtain a group camping permit regardless of length of stay. The permits totaled 7,766 persons. Permits are issued by forest rangers. Group Camping Permits Permit Location # of Permits Percent Marcy Dam 160 23 South Meadows 32 5 Johns Brook 41 6 Avalanche Camps & Marcy Brook 29 4 Long Lake 112 16 Other (14 locations) 332 47 TOTAL 706 100 Types of Activities The HPWC offers many diverse, low-intensity land and water activities. Visitors take all kinds of hikes -- short day hikes, long trips, and everything in between. Some ride horses, others walk or ski. They float rivers with boats and canoes. HPWC trips are seldom single-purpose excursions; most visitors participate in two or more activities, including but not limited to, hiking, camping, canoeing, skiing, fishing, hunting, trapping, horseback riding, mountaineering, photography, and nature study. Those activities showing marked increases include cross-country and telemark skiing, rock climbing, winter camping and mountaineering, canoeing, and big game hunting. Mode of Interior Travel A basic tenet of wilderness philosophy requires visitors to rely solely on muscle power by non-mechanical means as a means of transportation. Motorized use is prohibited. In doing this, the overall carrying capacity of the unit is increased and certain protection is afforded biological and physical resources, and a basic sense of remoteness is ensured (Fege and others, 1988). The most common method of travel is hiking. Approximately 88 percent of all visitors travel by foot (hike), ten percent canoe, one percent or less travel by horse and the remainder travel by other means. The "other" category includes mountain bicycles which are permitted on the Ampersand and South Meadows Roads currently open to motor vehicles. Otherwise, their use is prohibited in the interior (APSLMP, 1987, DEC regulation 1994). "Other" also includes float plane use of Corner Pond, a boundary between State and private lands at the south end of the u